Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri), a member of the "pigweed" family, is one of the most troublesome weeds in many southern row crops. Seed can germinate all season and plants can grow to over 6 feet in height. Plants have either male flowers that shed pollen or female flowers that can produce up to 600,000 seed per plant. One Palmer amaranth per 30 foot of row can reduce cotton yield by 6 to 12%.

Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri), a member of the "pigweed" family, is one of the most troublesome weeds in many southern row crops. Seed can germinate all season and plants can grow to over 6 feet in height. Plants have either male flowers that shed pollen or female flowers that can produce up to 600,000 seed per plant. One Palmer amaranth per 30 foot of row can reduce cotton yield by 6 to 12%.

Native to central Europe, the balsam woolly adelgid is now distributed throughout eastern and western North America. It attacks all true firs, Abies spp., including balsam and Fraser fir.

Liquid nitrogen fertilizers have typically been surface applied. This method of application places the fertilizer where the urea nitrogen component of the solution is susceptible to volatilization losses.

Adults are usually black or brown beetles with an oval to oblong shape. They have clubbed or knobbed antennae and the economically important species typically measure 3–6 mm (0.12–0.24 inch) long. Some sap beetles have short wing covers that do not cover the entire abdomen. Some species have flattened bodies while others are more convex. Many sap beetles are a dull color, sometimes with mottling or spots. One common sap beetle, the picnic beetle [Glischrochilus quadrisignatus (Say)], is an attractive shiny black beetle with four yellow-orange bands or spots on the wing covers.

their yield potential. Research has documented that applying fertilizer phosphorus increases crop growth and yields on soils that are naturally low in phosphorus and in soils that have been depleted through crop removal. Crop fertilization represents the greatest use of phosphorus in agriculture today.

No-tillage corn production has been practiced in Virginia for more than 35 years (Jones et al. 1968), yet many producers have not used no-tillage to its maximum advantage. This publication addresses where no-tillage corn can and should be adopted, and where no-tillage production needs to be modified to reduce production problems associated with continuous use.

Crop production has increased dramatically over the last few decades, much of which has been due to the widespread introduction of chemical fertilizers starting in the mid-1900s. Matching fertilizer application rates to crop needs is an essential component of optimizing crop production. However, different crops in separate fields will require varying rates of the major nutrients – nitrogen (N), phosphate (P2O5), and potassium (potash, K2O) – due to variations in soil types, soil test phosphorus and potassium levels, and nutrient ranges of different crops.

There are many, many factors that could cause either of these statements to be true: year-to-year weather variation, yield potential differences in and between fields, planting date differences, etc. (first published March 2019, last reviewed March 2024)

Specialty cut flowers are one of the most profitable field crops you can grow. Lynn Byczynski, editor of Growing For Market newsletter (see Resources section), estimates a value of $25,000 to $35,000 per acre for field-grown cuts. The most basic requirements are at least half an acre of open, arable land, a rototiller, and, of course, time and effort. This publication is directed to those new to market gardening, but commercial vegetable growers, tobacco farmers, and young people interested in summer income are all potential candidates. Even grain and livestock farmers have increased profitability in their operations by adding cut flower production. For many greenhouse and nursery operations, mid-summer business is slower, relative to spring. A field-grown cut flower business is a viable option to fill in the summer production and cash flow gap.

Animal manures are a good source of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) for agricultural crops, but they have an imbalance in their N to P ratio, so that if they are applied to meet crop N needs, then P is overapplied. For many years, manures have been applied to meet crop N needs, which has resulted in some soils containing more P than crops require, leading to environmental concerns. Regulations have been developed to limit P losses from manures and soils high in P by moving manure nutrient management from an N basis to a P basis.

In the competitive global peanut market, you need to lower production costs. At the same time, you also need to keep pesticide residues in peanuts to a minimum; protect rivers, streams, and lakes from runoff; and prevent chemicals from leaching through the soil to groundwater. Using IPM to protect crops only from pests that are likely to cause economic losses is a good way to meet these goals.

This publication explains the relationship between Leaf Area Index and soybean yield potential.

In Virginia both the 17-and 13-year cicadas damage many ornamental and hardwood trees. Oaks are commonly attacked but the most seriously damaged are newly planted fruit and ornamental trees such as apple, dogwood, peach, hickory, cherry, and pear. Pines and other conifers are not commonly attacked.

Corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea, is the most common and destructive insect pest of soybeans grown in Virginia. Although infestation severity varies, about one-third of our acreage is treated annually. This costs farmers 1.5 to 2 million dollars annually, and requires the application of many pounds of insecticide to crop lands. We may never eliminate this pest from Virginia soybeans, but knowledge of the biology and use of best management practices can help limit insecticide controls to those fields that meet economic threshold criteria. This publication provides current information on corn earworm biology, prediction of outbreaks, pest advisories, scouting procedures, and recently revised economic thresholds.

Plant Disease Diagnostic Form

The Plant Disease Diagnostic Form was designed to accommodate a wide variety of plants and growing situations; therefore, certain entries on this form may not be appropriate for a particular specimen or situation. Much of the information requested helps reconstruct the "field situation" for the diagnostician. Consider each section of the form carefully; the information provides important clues to the diagnostician that are significant in guiding the diagnostic process and formulating the control recommendation. Your local Extension office staff can assist you in completing the form and include the relevant information requested on the form, so when possible, complete the form with the assistance of your local VCE agent or VCE staff member.

This directory is intended to provide contact information for service and equipment suppliers, along with sources for information and education. Every attempt has been made to present accurate information. Contents are for informational purposes only and are based on details provided by the organizations and entities listed. Inclusion in this directory does not constitute an endorsement by the publishers of the products or services of any business organization or individual listed herein.

Most Virginia soils are acidic and require lime applications at three- to five-year intervals. Maintaining the correct soil pH has several benefits, such as encouraging healthy root development and making sure nutrients in the soil are available to the plant. For example, low pH can cause aluminum toxicity and can decrease phosphorus availability.

The Virginia Pest Management Guide (PMG) series lists options for management of major pests: diseases, insects, nematodes, and weeds. These guides are produced by Virginia Cooperative Extension and each guide is revised annually. PMG recommendations are based on research conducted by the Research and Extension Division of Virginia Tech, in cooperation with other land-grant universities, the USDA, and the pest management industry.

The Virginia Pest Management Guide (PMG) series lists options for management of major pests: diseases, insects, nematodes, and weeds. These guides are produced by Virginia Cooperative Extension and each guide is revised annually. PMG recommendations are based on research conducted by the Research and Extension Division of Virginia Tech, in cooperation with other land-grant universities, the USDA, and the pest management industry.

Remove the soybean plant at ground level to make it easier to stage. Examine each main stem node one at a time to determine the development stage. Focus on the top four nodes that contain fully developed leaves (shown below). A fully developed leaf is one that is located immediately below a node containing a leaf with unrolled or unfolded leaflets (leaflet edges are no longer touching). The soybean crop is considered to be at a particular stage when 50% of the plants reach that stage. Listed with stage description for R1 through R6 are the approximate number of days to R7, or physiological maturity, for full season (FS) soybean planted in May and double crop (DC) soybean planted in June/July.

This handbook represents a joint effort among Extension specialists and researchers from 15 land-grant universities in the U.S. who work in vegetable production. These specialists and researchers represent a wide array of disciplines: agricultural engineering, agribusiness, entomology, food safety, horticulture (vegetable production), plant pathology, postharvest physiology, soil science, and weed science. This handbook comprises up-to-the-minute information from research and Extension projects conducted throughout the southeastern United States. The key idea behind this handbook is to provide you with a practical resource that conveniently fits on your dashboard. It contains the information that you need to manage your vegetable crops, including which varieties to plant, planting dates, fertilizer recommendations, cover crop selection and conservation tillage options, pesticide selection, grafting, fertigation, plasticulture, postharvest handling, alternative pest management tools, and suggestions, as well as many other topics.

Numerous kinds of insects can be found in soybeans. Most are beneficial or harmless, but some can cause yield loss and even crop failure if not controlled.

This publication presents and discusses concepts that are fundamental to understanding soil, water, and plant relationships and the soil water balance. Knowledge about soil water relationships can inform the decision-making process in agricultural operations or natural resource management, such as determining what crops to plant, when to plant them, and when various management practices should be scheduled. Understanding these concepts is useful for addressing both agronomic and policy issues related to agricultural water management.

Irrigation scheduling is the process of deciding when and how much irrigation to apply to a field. Applying too little irrigation water can cause crop losses and yield reduction, but applying too much water can waste money, fertilizer, and labor, and can even decrease yields in some cases. The goal of this bulletin is to provide information that can help irrigators schedule irrigation using the checkbook method. It describes some of the benefits of irrigation scheduling and general factors that influence the amount and timing of irrigation needs. It then describes the data needed for checkbook irrigation scheduling and how to get this data, the calculations involved, and software/apps that can be used to help with these calculations.

Over past decades, there has been a steep emergence in the use of larger and heavier agricultural machinery including for tillage, planting, spraying, and harvesting. Although this is done to achieve higher productivity and efficiency, the unregulated traffic in the crop fields raise wheel loads to result in heavy soil compaction risks. Soil compaction is one of the major reasons for soil health degradation impacting physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil and eventually the crop productivity. We present the impact of soil compaction on crop yield and assess Controlled traffic farming (CTF) as a possible solution. Study results show that the soil compaction was higher for the track zone compared to the no-track zone for both the corn and soybean growing fields. Importantly, this impact was prominent in the root zone depth i.e., till and beyond the hard pan. In some cases, the compaction varied so prominently that it led to the formation of two hard pans. Evaluations for the CTF also showed a trend that the field treatments with no cover crop experienced the highest soil compactions whereas the treatments with cover crop experienced the least compaction in most cases. It was also evident that soil compaction led to reduced crop health which likely also impacts the crop yield.

The general purpose of a cover crop is to improve the soil, the broader environment, or other crops in rotation, not for direct harvest. Cover crops, depending on which are selected, are capable of providing many diverse assets. This publication provides a short description of these main benefits.

Cover crops increase soil organic matter, reduce erosion, suppress weeds, forage for nutrients, and reduce fertilizer costs (Clark, 2007). Cover crop species vary greatly and provide varied benefits. Performance evaluation of cover crop species and mixtures is needed in Virginia.

Delaware, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia, and Virginia, the five states in the Mid-Atlantic region, all require Certified Nutrient Management Plans to be completed for certain agricultural programs.

The mature and dried stem, leaves, and chaff remaining after barley and wheat are harvested is known as straw. Many farmers around Virginia harvest straw by baling in small bales, large round bales, or large square bales that range in weight from 40 to 1,000 lbs. plus per bale.

There has recently been increased interest in the use of crop residues for different industrial uses in the US and the world. Corn residue is frequently cited as the most likely candidate for alternate industrial uses because of the large area of production and the relatively large amount of residue produced per acre. Among the potential alternate uses for corn stover, biofuel production has received the greatest attention.

Phosphorus is a naturally occurring element that is one of 16 elements essential for plant growth and animal health. Research has documented that applying phosphorus in fertilizers or manure increases crop growth and yield on soils that are below critical agronomic levels, as measured during routine soil testing. Although the economic benefits of phosphorus fertilization on crop production are well-documented, too much of a good thing can be detrimental to the environment. Excessive soil phosphorus is a potential threat to water quality.

Slugs are prevalent pests in no-till and reduced-till crop systems in Virginia. These slimy mollusks utilize plant residue to hide during the day, and at night, they feed on numerous crops causing irregular feeding holes and shredded leaves. Slugs cause the most damage during early plant growth.

Hemp is a new crop to Virginia agriculture and available information about pest management and general crop production is lacking. This guide compiles the current known information about pest (insect and mite, disease and pathogen, and weed) management and crop production for hemp grown in Virginia. This is a first version and updates will occur in the future.

This publication on Asiatic garden beetle provides an overview of the insect, identification characteristics, and management recommendations for this pest in cotton.

Container-grown plants are constrained with regard to root growth, and are affected by factors including container size, substrate, weather, nutrition, and irrigation. Typical soilless substrates will hold less plant-available water than a typical field soil, making water management a critical component of any container-grown plant production system. A well-designed and managed irrigation system, which works in concert with the aforementioned factors, can provide the necessary quantity of water to support plant growth in an efficient manner.

"Low Tunnels in Vegetable Crops: Beyond Season Extension" is a comprehensive document that delves into the multifaceted benefits of micro tunnels in vegetable cultivation, encompassing not only extended growing seasons but also improved yield, pest management, and resource efficiency, making it an essential resource for modern sustainable farming.

Combine harvesters can disperse weed seed, spreading them within a field and from field to field. Harvest Weed Seed Control (HWSC) is a method of weed control that concentrates, removes, or kills weed seeds that are retained on weed plants at the time of crop harvest. HWSC can be used to reduce the soil seedbank and thus future weed problems. It can also aid in herbicide resistance management, by killing or removing seeds produced by weeds that have escaped herbicidal control. This publication overviews current options to adopt HWSC and research results from Virginia.

This publication provides 1) instructions for collecting and submitting crop nematode samples for diagnostic and predictive assays and 2) the nematode sample submission form for the Tidewater AREC Nematode Diagnostic Lab.

Secondary macronutrients are used in relatively large quantities by plants for optimal growth and are sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg). Micronutrients on the other hand are needed in much smaller quantities than both primary and secondary macronutrients; however, micronutrients are still essential for plant growth.

The Virginia Tech Shenandoah Valley Agricultural Research and Extension Center hosted its biennial Field Day on August 5, 2020 at 2 pm. This online event featured videos of current research projects at the Shenandoah Valley AREC. The topics covered during this field day included establishing and protecting trees in pasture, establishing biodiverse pasture systems for pollinators and cattle, new herbicide options for pasture weed control (while still preserving clover), cow and calf performance on summer-stockpiled tall fescue pastures, supplementing yeast-derived products to feedlot cattle, the Asian longhorned tick and Theileria, standardized performance analyses for benchmarking cow herd productivity, and the Smart Farm Innovation Network.

This production guide informs readers of production issues and best management practices to effectively grow peanuts in Virginia. This guide contains information regarding variety selection, basic agronomic considerations, plant protection products, weed control products, and insect control measures. This guide helps provide up to date information so growers can make informed choices regarding peanut production.

Early summer often means locally heavy and sporadic rainfall as thunderstorms deliver intense rains, and 2018 appears to be no different with many areas in eastern Virginia receiving 3+ inches of rain in a few days (Figure 1). These storms also often coincide with the timing of sidedress nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) applications on corn. While some rainfall after sidedress is very beneficial to facilitate N movement into soil, heavy rain (2+ inches) often leaves us wondering how much, if any, of that recently-applied N remains and if additional N is needed.

The annual summary of corn silage hybrids testing in Virginia.

In 2022, PVQE included 25 genotypes: 5 commercial varieties, including ‘Bailey II’,’ Emery’, ‘NC 20’, ‘Sullivan’ and ‘Walton’; and 20 advanced breeding lines developed by the North Carolina State University peanut breeding program (Table 1). All breeding lines have the ‘high oleic acid’ characteristic. Cultivars and lines were planted from May 11 through May 24 at five locations: Tidewater AREC in Suffolk, VA, Slade Farm near Williamston, Martin Co., NC, the Upper Coastal Plain Research Station (UCPRS) near Rocky Mount, NC, McDuffie Farm near Council, Bladen County, NC, and the Edisto Research and Education Center (EREC) in Blackville, SC.

The purpose of this publication is to provide performance data of the many soybean varieties offered for sale in Virginia. These data should be of benefit to producers and agribusinesses in making selections of varieties for their use. It is realized that not all varieties that are offered for sale in Virginia are included in these tests. There is no implication that varieties not included are inferior in any way, but only that they have not been tested.

The publication delves into the critical aspects of potato cultivar selection for Eastern Virginia. It highlights the importance of choosing cultivars well-suited to the region's climate and growing conditions. Factors like temperature fluctuations, precipitation patterns, tuber yield and quality are considered when making these selections. The evaluation process encompasses parameters such as yield potential, vegetative characteristics, and quality attributes like Specific Gravity and chip color. Moreover, the publication explores the use of metrics like NDVI and SPAD for assessing plant health. Detailed results for specific cultivars, such as 'Atlantic' and 'Chieftain,' among others, are provided, emphasizing data-driven decisions for optimal potato production in Eastern Virginia.

This document provides an overview of the potato industry's status in 2022, including key statistics such as acreage, cultivar selection methods, planting practices, and pest control measures. The challenges faced by potato farmers in the region are also discussed, including issues related to fertilization, labor, pests, and market conditions. Additionally, the document outlines the research priorities identified by potato farmers, focusing on soil analysis, weather data accessibility, and irrigation management. It emphasizes the importance of research and innovation for the sector's future growth. Lastly, the document explores communication preferences among potato farmers, highlighting their preference for email and annual conferences as effective means of information exchange.

These demonstration and research results are a collaborative effort of Virginia Cooperative Extension (VCE) Agents and Specialists, Virginia producers, and agribusiness. The purpose of this publication is to provide research-based information to aid in the decision-making process for soybean producers in Virginia. It provides an unbiased evaluation of varieties, management practices, and new technologies through on-farm replicated research using producer equipment and time. These experiments enable producers to make better management decisions based on research and provide greater opportunities to improve yields and profits, which improves quality of life for them and their families.

These demonstrations and replicated studies provide information that can be used by Virginia corn growers to make better management decisions on their farm. These results should be used along with data from other replicated studies when making decisions. Refer to individual location results for additional detail.

Peanut is a “cash” commodity for Virginians and most farmers grow this crop for certified seed. Seed quality and germination in particular are, therefore, very important. Even though the 2022 results were inconclusive, potential for prohexadione calcium to reduce germination and increase abnormal seedling production was clearly suggested by these data. The inconclusiveness could have been the result of a combination of factors, other than PC, affecting seed quality during storage. A differential response of the cultivars to both, seed aging and PC, was clearly suggested by our preliminary data. Evidence that PC may affect the seed quality, through seed weight, was also notable from the 2022 tests.

An overview of how to use aerial spectral imagery to determine wheat fertility rate and timing.

Faba bean (Vicia faba L.), also known as fava bean, broad bean, horse bean, or Windsor bean, is a leguminous crop used as food, feed, forage, or cover crop in different parts of the world. This crop can be used for food, feed, and as a ground cover crop. It is highly nutritious and has high protein content, the second after soybean when comparing with the common grown legumes including, dry beans, lentils, peas, cowpeas, and chickpeas. The high protein content makes faba bean an excellent source for plant-based foods, like meat and milk. Compared to the other cool-season legumes such as pea and lupin, faba bean can attain and fix substantially more nitrogen from the atmosphere to soil. Because of temperature increase during summer, a winter crop can ensure cropping system diversification while minimizing the negative effects of summer heat on yield and economic return, and this crop can potentially be faba bean. A USDA-funded project at the Virginia Tech’ s Tidewater Agricultural Research and Extension Center (TAREC) in Suffolk, VA, is focused on introduction of faba bean as a winter seed crop with multiple benefits for the Mid-Atlantic cropping systems. The project includes collaborators from the University of Maryland, University of Delaware, North Carolina State University, and University of Georgia, in addition to the Virginia State University and Virginia Tech. Started in 2023 and lasting until 2027, the project will address objectives related to cultivar development through breeding, genetics and physiological strategies, identification of the best agronomic practices to maximize yield and economic return, economic and marketing logistics, and consumer acceptance. As the results became available, the PI will provide updates on this new crop for the region.

In 2023, PVQE included 34 genotypes: 5 commercial varieties, including ‘Bailey II’,’ Emery’, ‘NC 20’, ‘Sullivan’ and ‘Walton’; and 25 advanced breeding lines developed by the North Carolina State University peanut breeding program and 4 advanced breeding lines developed by the University of Florida (Table 1). All breeding lines have the ‘high oleic acid’ characteristic. Cultivars and lines were planted from May 9 through June 15 at four locations: Tidewater AREC in Suffolk, VA, Slade Farm near Williamston, Martin Co., NC, the Upper Coastal Plain Research Station (UCPRS) near Rocky Mount, NC, and the Edisto Research and Education Center (EREC) in Blackville, SC.

The 2023 Virginia performance trials of commercial corn hybrids were conducted at six locations: Blacksburg, Holland, Blackstone, Orange, Shenandoah, and Mt. Holly. Corn was planted with a Wintersteiger PlotKing 2600 planter, and harvested at maturity with a Massey-Ferguson 8XP plot combine harvester. Plot grain weights (lb/ac), grain test weight (lb/bu), at grain moisture (%) were measured with a GrainGage® by HarvestMaster. Plot grain weights have been adjusted to a standardized moisture content of 15.5%. Statistical analysis was done to determine what differences were significant.

Summary report of the 2024 official soybean variety trials conducted by the soybean agronomy program. Results include yield and seed quality for each of the four full-season and two double-crop trial locations.

This report presents results from barley and wheat trials conducted in Virginia in 2023-2024. In Virginia, small grain cultivar performance trials are conducted each year by the Virginia Tech School of Plant and Environmental Sciences and the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. The trials provide information to assist Virginia Cooperative Extension Service agents in formulating cultivar recommendations for small grain producers and to companies developing cultivars and/or marketing seed within the state. Yield data are reported for individual locations, and across locations and years. Performance of a given variety often varies widely over locations and years which makes multiple location-year averages a more reliable indication of expected performance than data from a single year or location. Details about management practices for barley and wheat are listed for each experiment location.

These demonstration and research results are a collaborative effort of Virginia Cooperative Extension (VCE) Agents and Specialists, Virginia producers, and agribusiness. The purpose of this publication is to provide research-based information to aid in the decision-making process for soybean producers in Virginia. It provides an unbiased evaluation of varieties, management practices, and new technologies through on-farm replicated research using producer equipment and time. These experiments enable producers to make better management decisions based on research and provide greater opportunities to improve yields and profits, which improves quality of life for them and their families.

Mid-season heat and drought stress (HS+DS) severely impacts peanut growth, slashing yields by up to 50% and degrading kernel quality—key factors in market pricing. For Virginia-type peanuts, which command premium prices due to their large kernel size and superior grade (especially the "fancy" classification), HS+DS reduces both yield and percentage of total sound mature kernels (TSMK). This dual loss directly undermines profitability, as poor grades can offset gains from high productivity. With grade standards serving as a critical benchmark for growers and shellers, mitigating HS+DS is essential to preserving both yield and market value. This article discusses the effects of HS+DS on peanut yield and grade and highlights the importance of this combined stress.

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) has a spreading growth habit with lateral branches completely covering the ground at harvest. The current Virginia-type cultivars Bailey II, Emery, Sullivan, N.C. 20, and Walton have shown abundant vine growth under Virginia climate. While this is a positive thing, e.g. more biomass production can support higher yields, growers that do not use RTK guidance may be unable to see the rows for efficient vine digging and inversion. In short, under pressure from inverter set off the rows, pods can shed from the vines and yield can be lost.

Vegetable soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] is a popular component of Asian cuisine in the United States of America (USA). Vegetable soybean is better known by its Japanese name, “edamame,” where it has been cultivated and consumed for centuries, with the first written account of the word in 1275 AD. Increased financial, production, legal, labor, and market risks as a specialty vegetable crop, lack of processing infrastructure, labor expenses, market distribution, and challenges with mechanical harvesting have caused domestic production to lag behind market demand increases. This publication investigates mechanical harvest of this high-value edible soybean crop.

VCE AG TODAY is a weekly webinar that provides updates on agricultural practices. If you have any questions, please reach out to your local Extension office or visit www.ext.vt.edu.