Fisheries and aquatic resources (ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, and oceans) are exceptionally valuable natural assets enjoyed by millions of Americans. They provide citizens with generous long-term benefits in return for minimal care and protection.

Over a third of our nation’s streams, lakes, and estuaries are impaired by some form of water pollution (U.S. E.P.A. 1998). Pollutants can enter surface waters from point sources, such as single source industrial discharges and waste-water treatment plants; however, most pollutants result from nonpoint source pollution activities, including runoff from agricultural lands, urban areas, construction and industrial sites, and failed septic tanks.

Ailanthus, also known as tree-of-heaven and paradise- tree, is a major nuisance to foresters, farmers, and homeowners alike. Its prolific seeding and ability to sprout from roots and stumps and grow quite rapidly just about anywhere make it a serious competitor and threat to native species and cultivated crops. On top of that, ailanthus is allelopathic, producing substances that are toxic to and inhibit the growth of neighboring plants.

Aquatic biodiversity is the rich and wonderful variety of plants and animals—from crayfish to catfish, from mussels to mayflies, from tadpoles to trout—that live in watery habitats. It is the number of different native species, or species richness.

Biodiversity is declining globally at rates unprecedented in human history. Aquatic fauna in the United States are especially threatened; freshwater species are disappearing at a rate two to five times faster than native land animals. Causes of this decline include habitat loss and fragmentation, channelization of streams, dams, aquatic invasive species, pollution, and warming water temperatures. Humans actions to reduce the loss of aquatic biodiversity include preventing further habitat loss, restoring degraded habitats, stopping the introduction and spread of invasive species, and reducing pollutants and erosion.

Natural aquatic habitats include ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, springs, estuaries, bays, and various types of wetlands. Some of these habitats are shallow and others deep, some are cold-water and others warm-water, some are freshwater and others saltwater, and some have high oxygen levels and others little oxygen.

Nearly 300 species of mussels inhabit freshwater rivers, streams, and lakes in the United States. This is the richest diversity of mussels found in the world and an extraordinary natural heritage that needs protection. Because of the lustrous, pearl-like interior of the shells, some of these pearly mussels have important commercial value in the cultured pearl and jewelry industry.

Of the approximately 500 crayfishes (some times called crawdads or crawfish) found on earth, about 400 crayfish species live in waters in North America, and about 353, nearly 70 percent of the world’s total species, inhabit waters in the United States.

Fish are cold-blooded animals with a backbone, gills for breathing underwater, and paired fins for swimming. They live underwater and are dependent on water for dissolved oxygen, support, food, and shelter. North America has the most diverse temperate freshwater fish fauna in the world, but nearly 20 percent of those native freshwater fish species are imperiled, meaning that they are endangered, threatened, or of special concern. Fish are an important part of the food web, key indicators of water quality and ecosystem health, and a source of food and recreation for humans.

This is the largest and most ecologically diverse family of freshwater fishes in the world. Minnows are exclusively freshwater, although some species stray into brackish, tidal waters. Over 290 species of minnows occur in North America.

Frogs can be found in all landscapes, from deep under the water to high in trees. There are more than 100 species of frogs in the United States, and many of these are of conservation concern. This publication describes frog biology, diversity, and conservation issues.

Of the more than 700 species of salamanders found worldwide, more than 200 live in North America, and over 40 percent of these are considered to be at risk. Although these secretive creatures are unknown to many people, they are important parts of our natural world and in serious need of our protection. This publication describes salamander biology and conservation concerns.

Turtles are freshwater, marine, and terrestrial vertebrates with a shell. There are about 300 living species worldwide in 12 families and about 89 genera. Of these, eight species are marine, 49 are land, and about 250 are freshwater to semiaquatic.

Six hundred fifty different species of snails are widely distributed across the streams, rivers, and lakes of North America. There are unique species associated with every type of aquatic habitat from the Canadian Arctic to the Everglades of Florida.

their yield potential. Research has documented that applying fertilizer phosphorus increases crop growth and yields on soils that are naturally low in phosphorus and in soils that have been depleted through crop removal. Crop fertilization represents the greatest use of phosphorus in agriculture today.

Humans and plants depend on an adequate supply of clean water for a number of reasons, from producingfood to sustaining life. The average Virginia resident uses 826 gallons of fresh water daily (Virginia Department of Environmental Quality [VADEQ] 2008). In the Commonwealth alone, there are more than one million households that depend on well water, withdrawing more than 50 billion gallons annually (Virginia Department of Health 2008). For groundwater replenishment, we depend largely on recharge (water moving from the surface to groundwater) from infiltration of precipitation through permeable surfaces in the environment — an important part of the natural water cycle (VADEQ 2010).

Sheet flow to open space (SOS) is a group of best management practices (BMPs) designed to disperse concentrated runoff to sheet flow into filter strips or a riparian buffer. An SOS reduces runoff volume and associated sediment and nutrients that are carried with it (see figure 1). It is used as a stormwater treatment practice in both urban and rural areas. This practice is often used after another treatment practice to disperse or eliminate runoff. In a few cases, an SOS can be used as a pretreatment to remove small amounts of sediment via a vegetated filter strip — prior to a bioretention device, for example.

Soil restoration (SR) is the technique of enhancing compacted soils to improve their porosity and nutrient retention. It includes biological (worms) and mechanical aeration, mechanical loosening (tilling), planting dense vegetation, and applying soil amendments. Soil amendments involve the spreading and mixing of mature compost into disturbed and compacted urban soils (see Figure 1).

A vegetated roof (VR) is a best management practice (BMP) that reduces stormwater runoff and pollution. Vegetation and media create a permeable system on a previously impervious surface. The VR intercepts rainfall and filters runoff while reducing the volume and velocity. Vegetated roofs consist of a waterproofing barrier, drainage system, and engineered growing media. There are two types of VRs: intensive and extensive. Intensive vegetated roofs are deeper and heavier, while extensive vegetated roofs are shallower, lighter, and more common (see Figure 1). The type of VR determines the amount of maintenance necessary to maintain the vegetation.

Rainwater harvesting (RWH), also known as rainwater harvesting systems or cisterns, are devices that intercept, divert, store, and release collected roof runoff from rainfall for later use as an alternative water supply (see figure 1). RWH can also be designed to provide runoff reduction benefits. Therefore, it is classified as a best management practice (BMP) for treatment of urban stormwater. Because of its dual purpose and benefit, RWH is often classified as a sustainable urban BMP.

Permeable pavement (PP) is a modified form of asphalt or concrete with a top layer that is pervious to water due to voids intentionally created during mixing. PPs include pervious concrete, porous asphalt, and interlocking concrete pavers. These materials are used as stormwater treatment practices in urban areas. They are used in place of traditionally impervious surfaces to allow infiltration and storage, thus reducing runoff (see figure 1).

Infiltration practices provide temporary surface and/or subsurface storage, allowing infiltration of runoff into soils. In practice, an excavated trench is usually filled with gravel or stone media, where runoff is stored in pore spaces or voids between the stones (see figure 1). These systems can reduce significant quantities of stormwater by enhancing infiltration, as well as provide filtering and adsorption of pollutants within the stone media and soils. Infiltration practices are part of a group of stormwater treatment practices, also known as best management practices (BMPs)

A bioretention cell, or rain garden, is a best management practice (BMP) designed to treat stormwater runoff from roofs, driveways, walkways, or lawns. They are a shallow, landscaped depression that receives and treats polluted stormwater with the goal of discharging water of a quality and quantity similar to that of a forested watershed (figure 1).

A dry swale (DS) is a shallow, gently sloping channel with broad, vegetated, side slopes. Water flow is slowed by a series of check dams (see figure 1). A DS provides temporary storage, filtration, and infiltration of stormwater runoff. Dry swales function similarly to bioretention, and are comparable to wet swales; however, unlike a wet swale, a DS should remain dry during periods of no rainfall. A DS is an engineered best management practice (BMP) that is designed to reduce pollution through runoff reduction and pollutant removal and is part of a site’s stormwater treatment practice (see figure 2).

A wet swale (WS) is an engineered, best management practice (BMP) arranged in a straight line that is designed to reduce stormwater pollution. A WS consists of a shallow, gently sloping channel with broad, vegetated, side slopes and slow flows (see figure 1). Wet swales typically stay wet because the bottom of the swale is below the water table. This is done to encourage the growth of wetland vegetation, providing water quality treatment similar to a natural wetland. This stormwater treatment practice also functions as part of the stormwater conveyance system. Wet swales have a relatively low capital cost; however, maintenance can be is intensive and expensive when compared to other BMPs.

A stormwater filtering practice (FP) treats stormwater runoff by passing it through an engineered filter media consisting of either sand, gravel, organic matter, and/ or a proprietary manufactured product, collecting it in an underdrain, and then discharging the effluent to a stormwater conveyance system. FPs are stormwater treatment practices that are often obtained from the marketplace due to unique proprietary technologies (see figure 1).

Constructed wetlands are a series of ponds with varying depths that treat stormwater using wetland processes. In terms of biological activity, wetlands are extremely productive; and thus constructed wetlands can provide significant water quality treatment to urban runoff. This fact sheet describes these benefits, and provides guidance on their design and limitations.

Wet ponds are ponds designed to retain water through storage. They provide treatment through settling and biological uptake. They can also attenuate peak flows and provide flood and streambank protection. This fact sheet describes wet ponds and their benefits and limitations.

Extended detention ponds (EDs) are dry detention ponds that provide 12 to 24 hours of runoff storage during peak runoff events (see figure 1). Releases from the ED ponds are controlled by an outlet structure. During a storm event, as the discharge restriction is reached, water backs up into the ED pond. The pool slows flow velocities and enables particulate pollutants to settle. Peak flows are also reduced. ED ponds have the lowest overall pollutant- removal rate of any stormwater treatment option, so they are often combined with other upstream, lowimpact development (LID) practices to better maximize pollutant-removal rates. Due to their placement at the exit point of the watershed, ED is often the last opportunity to treat stormwater before it is discharged to a stream. Because of its low treatment performance, an ED should be viewed as the treatment option of last resort.

Animal manure has been used for centuries as a fertilizer and a soil builder because it contains nutrients and organic matter. However, as animal production shifts toward fewer but larger operations, the number of confined animals has increased in some geographical locations, resulting in more manure produced than can be assimilated by the available farmland where the animals are raised.

Manure storage is a critical part of a nutrient management plan in a livestock or poultry operation. It's essential to recognize manure as a valuable resource, rich in organic matter and nutrients that can be used as fertilizer or for energy production. While manure can accumulate rapidly, effective management is key to reducing the potential for odors, surface water, and groundwater contamination. This responsible environmental practice not only mitigates these risks but also allows for a strategic approach to managing and using manure. It provides livestock and poultry operations with the flexibility to schedule its use, maximizing the benefits of the resources it contains. Our publication offers guidelines and information for choosing the type of storage and setting them up for farming operations, emphasizing the importance of this responsibility.

Storing manure is a common practice on farms and for those who keep animals. However, a well-designed manure storage facility must also be well-managed to prevent environmental concerns from developing. In most cases, manure storages are used when cold weather, wet conditions, and/or a lack of time do not allow field application. To get the most benefit out of the manure, good management practices and observation of safety practices that minimize manure hazards on the farm are crucial. This publication provides guidelines that stress the importance of good management and safety practices for manure storage to inform the safety and security of a farming operation.

If not managed properly, manure can negatively impact the environment. Therefore, regardless of size, all livestock and poultry operations must handle manure effectively for economic benefits and environmental protection. Media reports often highlight community conflicts arising from livestock and poultry odors, fish kills, and the pollution of surface or groundwater due to poor manure management. These issues have strained relationships between the public and animal agriculture and can be minimized responsibly by managing manure and other agricultural wastes. Effective manure management begins with recognizing its value as a nutrient source for crops and understanding its potential negative effects on air, water, and soil. This publication provides general guidelines for managing livestock and poultry manure. It includes a list of resources with detailed information on best practices for manure management and uses that contribute to good environmental stewardship.

Water reuse can be defined as the use of reclaimed water for a direct beneficial purpose.

The Virginia Master Naturalist program is a statewide corps of volunteers providing education, outreach, and service dedicated to the beneficial management of natural resources and natural areas within their communities.

Protection of water quality is a critical component of forest harvesting operations. Virginia’s silvicultural water quality law (§10.1-1181.1 through 10.1-1181.7) prohibits excessive sedimentation of streams as a result of silvicultural operations. Virginia’s logging businesses invest substantial resources implementing BMPs to protect water quality. The Virginia Department of Forestry (VDOF) is responsible for enforcing this law and inspects all logging operations to ensure protection of water quality.

This report summarizes the findings from a strategic planning process conducted by the Virginia Master Naturalist program in 2013-2014. The process involved three steps: a comprehensive needs assessment to identify program needs, strategic planning workshops to identify initiatives for addressing those needs, and online voting to prioritize proposed initiatives.

In this publication, information is presented on how to increase farm productivity while potentially reducing greenhouse gas* (GHG) contributions from agricultural production. Some of the practices may be familiar to many producers, such as building soil organic matter (SOM) or increasing nitrogen fertilization efficiency, but many producers may not know that these same productivity-boosting activities also help to reduce GHG emissions and their impact on climate change. While informative to the producer, this publication will also inform those with an interest in both agriculture and the environmental impact of GHG emissions on the atmosphere.

Greywater is any household wastewater other than that used for toilet flushing. This water could be reused around the home (for purposes other than drinking water). An example of greywater use is landscape irrigation. Wastewater that comes in contact with human waste is referred to as blackwater. However, the definition of greywater varies according to state regulations.

Reclaimed water, sometimes referred to as “water reuse” or “recycled water,” is water recovered from domestic, municipal, or industrial wastewater treatment plants that has been treated to standards that allow it to be safely used for designated purposes. Reclaimed water should not be confused with “wastewater,” untreated liquid industrial waste or domestic sewage. However, “gray water,” untreated water from bathing or washing, is considered one form of wastewater (Water Reuse, VCE Publication 452-014). The level of treatment and disinfection reclaimed water receives is dictated by its intended (and permitted) use. Many states encourage and promote the use of reclaimed water to conserve freshwater supplies and preserve rivers, streams, lakes, and aquifers.

Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting, storing, and later reusing rainwater from surfaces such as roofs. Rainwater harvesting has long been used for agricultural irrigation and as a source of drinking water, and allowed ancient civilizations to flourish in semi-arid and arid regions. Rainwater harvesting systems are in use today in many water-limited locations, especially in several western US regions. As population growth increases pressure on water resources in the more humid eastern US, rainwater harvesting is being considered to reduce the demand for potable water.

The objectives of this publication are (1) to outline some climate-related challenges facing agriculture, (2) to address challenges in communicating climate change issues, and (3) to propose best practices when attempting to communicate climate change issues to agricultural stakeholders. Extension educators and agricultural service providers can use the information presented here to develop outreach and educational programs focused on the impacts of climate change, the effects of climate change on agricultural production, and the best ways to motivate behavior change.

This publication highlights recent advances in adapting denitrifying bioreactors developed in the Midwest to the Mid-Atlantic region. Denitrifying bioreactors are edge-of-field management practices that harness the activity of soil bacteria to remove excess nitrogen from drainage waters. Agricultural drainage is a significant source of nutrients to the Chesapeake Bay and important to manage. Although challenges remain with respect to adapting designs to treat ditch drainage, denitrifying bioreactors hold promise to yield water quality improvements in the Chesapeake Bay watershed.

Infographic with 10 tips for managing private water supplies (supports VAHWQP).

Denitrifying bioreactors (DNBRs) are an alternative best management practice (BMP) that can reduce the amount of nitrogen reaching surface waters. DNBRs function by supporting soil microorganisms that are capable of denitrification in a favorable environment.

This is a collaborative effort based on VAHWQP data and working with two undergraduate researchers in BSE. It was reviewed by a public health consultant who is an expert in water fluoridation. This publication is produced in partnership with Virginia Department of Health and was designed by a contracted graphic designer and MPH student, Christy Meek. Digital only, front and back, color.

The mature and dried stem, leaves, and chaff remaining after barley and wheat are harvested is known as straw. Many farmers around Virginia harvest straw by baling in small bales, large round bales, or large square bales that range in weight from 40 to 1,000 lbs. plus per bale.

In this issue: Technological advances in bacterial identification; Ruminal fiber passage rate: A double-edged sword for cattle methane emissions? SDBII note; Upcoming Events

An overview of rain barrels, one of the most common residential stormwater management practices.

An overview of permeable paving, one of the most common residential stormwater management practices.

Climate change is documented by research data, yet some deny evidence of the causes, underestimate the impacts, or fail to adjust their activities and choices. Soil is tied to climate change in many ways. Presented on-line to a national professional meeting of soil scientists, this video discusses the way that Americans perceive climate change and the relationships between climate change and soil science.

An overview of grass swales, one of the most common residential stormwater management practices.

An overview of rain gardens, one of the most common residential stormwater management practices.

An overview of buffers, one of the most common residential stormwater management practices.

Overview of rooftop redirect, one of the most common residential stormwater management practices.