Acid-base reactions and the concept of pH are critical concepts in chemistry, environmental sciences and Earth science. First, students will present hypotheses of whether the pH will increase or decrease when calcite or pyrite are dissolved in water. Second, in a facilitated activity, students (in groups) will dissolve pyrite and calcite in water and measure the pH after the minerals dissolve. Third, they will hypothesize what happens to the pH when they mix the pyrite and calcite together (in water). Fourth, they will then test their hypotheses by mixing them and measuring pH. Fifth they will discuss if their results support their hypotheses. Last, they will expand what they learned in the experiments to how minerals can be used in water treatment.

Invasive exotic species are plants that are not native to a given area and have the ability to out-compete indigenous plant species. Invasive exotics are often brought into their non-native surroundings by humans with good intentions.

Six hundred fifty different species of snails are widely distributed across the streams, rivers, and lakes of North America. There are unique species associated with every type of aquatic habitat from the Canadian Arctic to the Everglades of Florida.

This publication defines watersheds, why they are important to everyone, and how people positively and negatively impact them.

Water reuse can be defined as the use of reclaimed water for a direct beneficial purpose.

Utilization of woody biomass for energy has increased substantially in Virginia. While there are a number of definitions for biomass, woody biomass from forest harvesting operations typically refers to logging residues such as limbs, tops, and other unmerchantable material that would otherwise be left behind on-site after the logging operation is complete. Logging residues are typically chipped and then transported to facilities where they are used for fuel. Biomass harvesting in Virginia most commonly occurs on integrated harvesting operations where roundwood and biomass are harvested and utilized at the same time in a single operation.

In this publication, information is presented on how to increase farm productivity while potentially reducing greenhouse gas* (GHG) contributions from agricultural production. Some of the practices may be familiar to many producers, such as building soil organic matter (SOM) or increasing nitrogen fertilization efficiency, but many producers may not know that these same productivity-boosting activities also help to reduce GHG emissions and their impact on climate change. While informative to the producer, this publication will also inform those with an interest in both agriculture and the environmental impact of GHG emissions on the atmosphere.

Greywater is any household wastewater other than that used for toilet flushing. This water could be reused around the home (for purposes other than drinking water). An example of greywater use is landscape irrigation. Wastewater that comes in contact with human waste is referred to as blackwater. However, the definition of greywater varies according to state regulations.

Reclaimed water, sometimes referred to as “water reuse” or “recycled water,” is water recovered from domestic, municipal, or industrial wastewater treatment plants that has been treated to standards that allow it to be safely used for designated purposes. Reclaimed water should not be confused with “wastewater,” untreated liquid industrial waste or domestic sewage. However, “gray water,” untreated water from bathing or washing, is considered one form of wastewater (Water Reuse, VCE Publication 452-014). The level of treatment and disinfection reclaimed water receives is dictated by its intended (and permitted) use. Many states encourage and promote the use of reclaimed water to conserve freshwater supplies and preserve rivers, streams, lakes, and aquifers.

Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting, storing, and later reusing rainwater from surfaces such as roofs. Rainwater harvesting has long been used for agricultural irrigation and as a source of drinking water, and allowed ancient civilizations to flourish in semi-arid and arid regions. Rainwater harvesting systems are in use today in many water-limited locations, especially in several western US regions. As population growth increases pressure on water resources in the more humid eastern US, rainwater harvesting is being considered to reduce the demand for potable water.

This fact sheet presents and explains some common concepts in hydrology and the hydrologic cycle. The science or study of hydrology focuses on the distribution, occurrence, circulation, and properties of water in the environment.

Virginia usually receives ample rainfall to support agriculture, but droughts in 2002, 2007, and 2010 led to severe problems for farms in many regions. Using groundwater for irrigation can help manage drought risks on farms without access to ponds or streams. However, installing groundwater wells can be expensive and time-consuming. The amount of water obtained from wells can vary in different regions of the state. This bulletin is intended to provide agricultural producers with information on technical and regulatory issues related to irrigating with groundwater.

Forest inventory (timber cruising) is a common activity used to quantify the resource. The data collected are used to form statistical estimates of a variety of important characteristics; however, these estimates are uncertain due to sampling. Confidence intervals are a relatively simple statistical tool that can help managers quantify this uncertainly and make more informed management decisions. This article explains confidence intervals, provides an example of their use, and discusses their management implications.

Because of the coyote's versatility, adaptability, and its current wide distribution throughout Virginia, the likelihood of encountering a coyote is real. Thus, residents of the Commonwealth should become more aware and informed about the traits and behaviors of this species to avoid undesirable interactions. This publication provides basic information about the coyote, its expected and normal behaviors and other life history aspects, and suggestions on how to minimize or avoid problems that can arise from our interactions with this fascinating creature.

Virginia Master Naturalist volunteers are well-positioned to help more people of all ages and backgrounds to have regularly occurring, meaningful experiences in nature that meet their personal interests and needs. As volunteer educators, they may provide interpretive talks, lead interpretive walks, develop interpretive brochures and signage, and give formal presentations. The foundation for all of these forms of education includes knowing one's audience; planning topics, themes, goals, and objectives; background research and preparation; communicating clearly; and evaluating. This publication describes these key concepts and provides step-by-step guidelines for planning interpretive programs and other educational interactions.

This publication explains how landowners can determine if threatened and endangered animals, plants, or insects are present on their land. It also identifies who to contact, if present, to determine if forest management activities could have a negative impact on these species. Finally, it includes information on a number of voluntary programs private landowners can participate in. These programs facilitate active forest management while protecting threatened and endangered species.

The mature and dried stem, leaves, and chaff remaining after barley and wheat are harvested is known as straw. Many farmers around Virginia harvest straw by baling in small bales, large round bales, or large square bales that range in weight from 40 to 1,000 lbs. plus per bale.

Several different insects are found in Virginia that cause concern due to their large size and coloration. They are for the most part harmless and just curiosities of nature.

Cankerworms are also known as inchworms, loop worms, and spanworms - this is credited to their distinctive way of moving. In order to travel, a cankerworm must grab leaves or branches with its front legs and then pull the rest of its body forward. This causes the abdomen area to contract and gives the worm the appearance of arching its back.

This extension publication presents information on how out-of-play areas serve as pollinator-friendly habitats in golf courses. This project also introduces information on the remote sensing approach to monitor the plant health status of this out-of-play areas.

Understanding the fundamental aspects of melon physiology and morphology is essential for optimizing its cultivation, improving yield, and enhancing fruit quality. This document provides a concise overview of the key physiological and morphological characteristics of the basic melon plant, highlighting its growth and development processes. The physiological aspects encompass various essential factors that influence melon growth, including photosynthesis, water relations, nutrient uptake and assimilation, and hormone regulation. Melon plants exhibit distinct physiological responses to environmental stimuli such as light, temperature, and water availability, which directly impact their growth, flowering, and fruiting. An understanding of these physiological processes aids in implementing appropriate cultivation practices and management strategies for maximizing melon productivity.